The New York Times reported yesterday (June 7, 2010) that Estonia now requires teachers to speak Estonian. On one level, this requirement doesn’t seem like much of a shock—of course teachers ought to be able to speak their national tongue—but the issue is really more complex.

Estonia’s campaign to emphasize Estonian and marginalize Russian centers around schools. In 2008, 30% of the teachers at Tallinn Pae Gymnasium (where the NYT article interviewed teachers and staff) failed the Estonian language pop quiz (an inspector from the Estonian National Language Inspectorate carried on a conversation with each teacher to see how fluent each was). Another inspection is expected this year. Unlike Arizona, where teachers are fired for their grammatical errors and accents, at this point Estonian teachers are not penalized for their lack of language skills. They are advised to take language classes and, in the future, it is expected that there will be firmer penalties.

Thirty percent of teachers at the top school in Tallinn failing the Estonian language test is astounding, but given the political and language struggles of Estonia (especially within the last few decades), it’s easy to see why Estonia’s new policy is considered to be too much. Estonia itself is located in Northern Europe and bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic sea, to the south by Latvia, and, most importantly in terms of politics and language, to the east by Russia. A state ruled by many including Denmark, Sweden, and Germany, Estonia was occupied and annexed by the U.S.S.R. during World War II. In 1991, with the fall of Soviet regime, Estonia was once again a free country.

During this Soviet occupation and annexation, of course, Russian became the official language of Estonia, replacing the native Estonian language. While the contemporary debate is between Russian and Estonian, it is important to remember that Estonia was an occupied state for much of its existence. Over the centuries, Danish, Swedish, and German have all been official languages, and it wasn’t until the 19th century (during the Estophile Enlightenment Period) that Estonian became less marginalized (only to be replaced by Russian in the 20th century). During Soviet rule, Russian was considered an equal national language to Estonian, but it took precedence in political, economic, and educational affairs. Today, Estonian is the sole state language.

The conflict stems from the fact that Estonian, while the official language, is only spoken by 70% of the population—the other 30% speak Russian as their first language—and in Tallinn, half of the schools are Russian language. Imposing the rule that 60% of all classes must be taught in Estonian forces the teachers to catch up, and catch up quickly—something that’s not so easy given the language’s difficulty. As a Uralic language, Estonian is much like Finnish and resembles Russian in very few ways. So for teachers, fluently learning a non-native language like Estonian is quite a challenge. In a recent BBC article, Estonian president Toomas Hendrik Ilves summed up the general population’s feelings about Russian when he stated that, “Speaking Russian would mean accepting 50 years of Soviet brutalization.”

The Estonian language tests are not exclusive to teachers (As it is, Estonian law requires that an Estonian language test be passed in order to gain citizenship.)—other government employees are required to have a competency in Estonian—but teachers play the main role in the drama. For a country that has been defined and redefined since the 13th century by other countries, it’s not surprising that Estonia wants to establish itself as its own political and linguistically defined state. Only time will tell how successful the country will be in imposing its Estonian-only policies, but time is what state employees desperately need in order to gain competency.

                          

In addition to the languages spoken by the teams and spectators, the languages of the host country also require special consideration. This year’s World Cup is being hosted by South Africa, a country that recognizes eleven official languages in its constitution and is home to a host of other dialects as well. The eleven official languages are as follows: Afrikaans, English, IsiNdebele, IsiXhosa, IsiZulu, Northern Sotho, Sesotho, Setswana, SiSwati, Tshivenda, and Xitsonga. Other languages spoken in South Africa and mentioned in the constitution, though not official, include Kho, Nama, San, sign language, Arabic, German, Greek, Gujarati, Hebrew, Hindi, Portuguese, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telegu, and Urdu. The indigenous creoles and pidgins like Tsotsi taal and Fanagalo vary the language mix even more. While these languages are not recognized or considered in the constitution, they are used by various language groups to communicate in the urban environment.

In today’s global economy, it is easy to assume that English would be the lingua franca of South Africa—a globally common language that would enable a linguistically diverse population to communicate. While English is popular, representing a total of 8.2% of the population (according to the dated 2001 census), it lags behind IsiZulu (23.8%), IsiXhosa (17.6%), Afrikaans (13.3%), and Northern Sotho (9.4%). Setswana actually ties with English at 8.2%. English might be used for business communication, but, as the fifth most popular language, it obviously doesn’t hold a prominent position compared to South Africa’s more indigenous and other colonized tongues.

Given the diversity and distribution of languages in the country, it is useful to consider the four most popular South African languages ahead of English, especially in regards to the World Cup. Different Cup matches will take place in stadiums across the country—Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban, Johannesburg, Kimberley, Nelspruit, Orkney, Polokwane, Port Elizabeth, Pretoria, and Rustenburg. These cities are located all over South Africa and since the country’s official languages tend to be centered in specific geographic locations, a brief history and explanation of the languages help ground the matches in their cultural-linguistic spaces.

IsiZulu

IsiZulu, the most popular language in South Africa, is the language of the Zulu people, South Africa’s largest ethnic group. It is a tonal language and is grouped in the Nguni language group along with IsiXhosa, SiSwati, and IsiNdebele. While the language is spoken across the country, it is most concentrated in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. A spoken language until the mid-nineteenth century, the written language developed after Christian missionaries first translated the Bible into IsiZulu in 1883. The first work of IsiZulu literature translated was Thomas Mofolo’s Chaka, which appeared in 1910 and was published in 1925.

IsiXhosa

IsiXhosa, also known as Southern or Cape Nguni, is closely related to IsiZulu, but in distribution is concentrated mostly in the former Transkei, Ciskei and Eastern Cape regions. Like IsiZulu, it is a tonal language, and it is a language in which various click sounds represent consonants. The noun is the primary part of speech in IsiXhosa. For the written language, the Latin alphabet is used as a result of missionary influence, and the first IsiXhosa Bible was produced in 1859. While the language used in universities is usually English or Afrikaans, Xhosa is often taught as a subject. Literature, radio, TV, plays, and the like, are produced in IsiXhosa.

Afrikaans

The third most prominent language, Afrikaans, is arguably the most generally recognized language in South Africa. A language originating from seventeenth century Dutch settlement, Afrikaans can be simply described as a combination of English, Malay, German, Portuguese, French, and some African languages. A distinct language from Dutch, it is still possible for Afrikaans and Dutch language speakers to understand each other. The Afrikaans vocabulary is Dutch, and the language’s grammar is like a simpler version of Dutch grammar. The earliest texts of Afrikaans are attributed to “doggeral verse” from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveler in 1825. The first authoritative text, however, is considered to be L.H. Meurant’s Zamenspraak tusschen Klaas Waarzegger en Jan Twyfelaar (“Conversation between Claus Truthsayer and John Doubter“) which was published in 1861.

Sotho, Sesotho sa Leboa, Sepedi

The fourth most popular language is Northern Sotho, otherwise known as Sotho or Sesotho sa Leboa (the autoglottonym used by the United Nations). Northern Sotho is often referred to as Sepedi (as it was originally designated in the constitution), but it has since been designated as Northern Sotho in an attempt to recognize the thirty closely related dialects the language represents instead of the one Pedi dialect. Historically, Northern Sotho has been associated with Pedi because the original missionaries had contact with the Pedi people, but various non-Pedi dialects are also encompassed in the language.

The other official and unofficial South African languages, combined with the official World Cup languages, and all the other spoken languages Cup fans will be able to hear in the street in South Africa, will undoubtedly make this World Cup a celebration of linguistic diversity. With the matches broadcast all over the world, it is impossible to discern the total languages and dialects that will be represented by the month long event—it’s all enough to make a language lover scream “GOAAAAAL!”

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In opening, Critchley references Plato’s dialogue “Theaetetus,” suggesting that a philosopher is someone who looks “at the sky” or at things not grounded on/in earth and in doing so is unaware of the things at his feet (as Thales was when he was so intent on looking at the stars that he fell into a well). The philosopher, thus, is a joke. He adds that there are many layers in this water metaphor—one being that the water is Thales’ philosophers stone and that he therefore fell into his own philosophy.

Another aspect of the philosopher, though, is time—the ability to have time, to take time. In differentiating between the philosopher and the lawyer (the pettifogger), Socrates tells Theodorus that they are, indeed, at leisure. According to Critchley,

Socrates says that those in the constant press of business, like lawyers, policy-makers, mortgage brokers and hedge fund managers, become ‘bent and stunted’ and they are compelled ‘to do crooked things.’ The pettifogger is undoubtedly successful, wealthy and extraordinarily honey-tongued, but, Socrates adds, ’small in his soul and shrewd and a shyster.’ The philosopher, by contrast, is free by virtue of his or her otherworldliness, by their capacity to fall into wells and appear silly.

Further, the philosopher, according to Socrates, is unconcerned with the things of the polis—his body dwells within the city walls, but his thoughts are elsewhere. Ironically, of course, Crtichley reminds us that Socrates literally ran out of time in the courts and was sentenced to death, his words remaining only through the lens of Plato. So time is of the essence and is constantly in opposition to the philosopher—best friend and worst enemy.

Critchley goes on to expound on the philosopher’s role as a gadfly and as a dissenter against the gods, for “nothing is more common in the history of philosophy than the accusation of impiety.” In this way, he proposes, “perhaps the last laugh is with the philosopher;” perhaps what society finds so uncanny and dissenting in philosophy is really what is needed—after all, isn’t this why we study ancient philosophy to this day?

                          

With warmer weather comes an increase in outdoor activities—swimming, running, and biking, just to name a few. Although the Boston Marathon was held last month, many of the other big ones lie ahead—Chicago, New York, and Leadville—and the season has just started for triathlons and major cycling events. Given the world-wide popularity of these sports, it’s not surprising that many of them have international roots.

Here’s a behind-the-language guide to some of your favorite summer sports, and maybe next time when you’re at mile twenty of a marathon or one-third of the way through a triathlon, these histories will give you something to think about and get your mind off the grueling journey.

Marathon

A marathon is a long distance foot race with an official distance of 42.195 km or 26.2 miles. The name is rooted in the legend of Pheidippides, a Greek messenger, who in the fall of 490 BCE was sent from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens to announce the defeat of the Persians in the Battle of Marathon. Interestingly, he was forced to run the route as a messenger after he spent days fighting in the battle. Apparently his commanding officers thought highly of his athletic ability. He managed to run the entire way without stopping until he burst into the assembly and cried out “We have won,” and then collapsed, dead.

While the historical accuracy of the legend is questionable, the name stuck for the race which was developed for the 1896 first modern Olympic Games in Athens. A male-only race, the first winner was Spiridon “Spiros” Louis, a Greek water-carrier, and he won with a time of only 2 hours, 58 minutes, and 50 seconds. It wasn’t until 1984 that the women’s marathon was introduced to the Olympic Games and it was won by Joan Benoit of the U.S. with a time of 2 hours, 24 minutes and 52 seconds. Outside of the Olympics, over 500 marathons are organized worldwide with the most prestigious races being the Boston, New York City, Chicago, London, and Berlin races.

Decathlon/Triathlon

Decathlons and triathlons are also of Greek origin, decathlon coming from the Greek words for “ten” (δέκα) and “contest” (αθλος), triathlon coming from the Greek words for “tri” (three) and “contest” (αθλος). As the names suggest, the decathlon consists of any ten events, whereas the triathlon consists of three, but while in a triathlon one swims, bikes, and runs, decathlons are centered solely around track and field events. One interesting gender discrepancy is that a decathlon is competed in almost solely by men, whereas women compete in a heptathlon (from the Greek hepta, seven, and athlon, contest).

The decathlon developed in ancient Greek pentathlon competitions held at the original Olympic Games. Pentathlons involved five different events—long jump, discus, javelin throw, sprint, and a wrestling match—and evolved after the centuries to become even a religious game. In 393 CE the game was ended by Roman Emperor Theodosius I, but the 1948 Olympics brought it back to the forefront, making the events a 100 m run, long jump, shot put, high jump, 400 m run, 110 m hurdles run, discus, pole vault, javelin, and 1500 m run spread out over a period of two days.

The triathlon is thought to be a descendant of the decathlon that holds its beginnings in 1920s France. In France, an annual event called “Les trios sports” or “La Course des Débrouillards” or “La course des Touche à Tout” featured the contemporary combination of swimming, biking, and running with a 3 km run, 12 km bike portion, and a swim across the channel Marne. An earlier tri-sport competition was recorded in 1902 that involved running, cycling, and canoeing, but the traditional triathlon involves swimming over a different sport. The modern triathlon, in it’s many different forms—sprint, Olympic, or Ironman—evolved in the 1970s and today there are hundreds, if not thousands, of triathlons worldwide.

Randonneuring

Randonneuring is an organized long distance bicycle ride the typically covers between 100 and 1,200 km (60-750 miles). A participant in the ride is called a ranndoneur and the event itself is called a randonnée. Unlike a marathon or decathlon, a randonneuring is not competitive; rather, it is a test of endurance and skill, and riders are expected to carry any gear needed with them—lights, extra clothing, food, etc. A series of “controls” (locations) ensures that the rider follows the designated route, and at each control, information about time of arrival is added to the ranndoneur’s “brevet card” which is then presented to officials at the end of the race as proof of completion. At a “manned control,” someone stamps the card, but at an “info control,” the ranndoneur must answer a specific question about the location to prove that he or she was there.

The first randonnée occurred in 1891 and in 1903 the randonnée evolved to include staged races like the Tour de France. Today, the main professional and amateur bike races all evolved from randonnées (except, of course, cash prizes are involved)—Tour de France, Tour of Flanders, Tour of California—but other less well-known non-competitive randonnées occur all over the globe in countries like France, Australia, the Netherlands, Belgium, the U.S., and Canada. Each randonneur is classified by its length. Populaires are rides under 200 km; Brevets are rides of 200 km or more which must be completed within a specific time and date; Permanets or Raids are similar to Brevets but have an arbitrary start date; Fleches involve teams which compete together; and Audax rides are rides of 200 km or more that, like the Fleches, involves a team or riders (but audax rides only occur in parts of France, Holland, and Belgium). With so many different styles and lengths to choose from, it’s no wonder that randonneuring is as popular as it is, especially during these late spring/early summer weeks before the temperatures rise and sweating out practically the equivalent of one’s body weight is the norm.

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Original source photo provided by The Nationaal Archief

                          

Cofferdam

The magnitude of the spill is due to many factors, one of the main ones, of course, being the failure of BP—the company leasing the rig from Transocean—to successfully implement the emergency plans. The initial attempt to lower a gigantic containment dome known as a “cofferdam” on top of the largest leaking area on the seabed failed this weekend (it had never been attempted before at such depths), leaving BP rushing for a new plan. And each plan isn’t without its own industry slang.

Top Hat

Plan B for BP is known as the “top hat”—a containment box that will be placed over the smaller of the two leaks. The top hat would limit the amount of water exposed to the leak and thus, hopefully, bypass the dangerous formation of ice-like hydrates which clogged the containment dome’s pipes and made the dome buoyant. While the top hat isn’t the end-all-be-all solution for the spill, it would help to check the unfettered leak taking over the Gulf.

Top Kill

Another idea is called a “top kill” which involves shooting mud and concrete directly into the reconfigured blowout preventer—the device that failed during the April 22 explosion. If it works, the top kill will plug up the leak, preventing the oil from reaching the ocean, but it could take several weeks before it is effective.

Junk Shot

One of the stranger solutions is the “junk shot” where tires and golf balls and shredded rope are literally shot into the blowout preventer to clog it. Like the top kill, however, BP would not be able to utilize the junk shot for two or three weeks, and, like all containment efforts, it has never been performed at such depths—the possible success of the junk shot is unknown.

Until the leak is completely capped, there is no way to know the damage that will occur to the Gulf coast. Already, tar balls, pieces of emulsified oil, have washed up on Dauphin Island, Alabama, and several birds have died due to the oil slick—not to mention the economic effect of the diminished fishing industry. For the moment we can only hope that one of the strangely coined secondary plans works.

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Photo by Pan-African News Wire

                          

If you’ve decided to learn a new language but don’t know where to start, here are five tips that will get you going in the right direction.

1. Self-guided Programs versus Instructor-led Programs

Our experience has taught us that the best way to acquire a new language is through personal customized training led by a professional instructor who is a native speaker of the target language.

There are also many self-guided language programs that may be a good place to start for individuals with zero knowledge of the new language. These resources are unlikely to guide learners beyond basic proficiency levels — greetings, basic requests, and so forth, but many of them do provide good introductions to the new language, and a bit of a foundation before starting intensive training. Self guided options include mp3/cd and book based courses by the Foreign Service Institute and, for free, the Massachusets Institute of Technology’s Open Courseware, a collection of activities, notes, and audio/video lectures.

Community colleges and intensive language institutions like Middlebury’s Language Schools offer the advantage of complete immersion in the language—no English allowed—and you’re forced to keep on track with the study plan. Although learning on your own may be more cost-effective, people with serious language goals and the means to pay tuition would do well to consider total immersion programs. A great middle ground is online instruction. ALTA’s own Online Language Training offers the benefit of personal customized instruction while maintaining the flexibility and mobility of self-study programs.

2. Practice Makes Perfect

An important element to learning a language, no matter what method you choose, is to really study. Every day you need to set aside time in your schedule to practice reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Here are a few ideas to get you out of the coursework and into real life situations:

• Watch a foreign film without subtitles. You might not understand everything that goes on, but it is a good way to use context and cultural clues to learn words—and to hear how everyday speech sounds like in that language.
• Read one newspaper article in your target language every day. Not only will you catch up on the latest news from around the globe, you’ll also hone your reading comprehension skills.
• Log onto sites like italkie and chat with a language exchange partner. It’s like having a pen pal in the other language, but via video feed!
• Improve your writing skills by starting a journal in the other language. After you write something, submit it to Lang-8, a language exchange website that allows you to submit writing in a foreign language and then have a native speaker correct it for you. You can then, in turn, help others learn your native language by doing the same for them.

3. Focus on the Vocabulary

Chances are, if you know 1000 of the most common vocabulary words in any language, then you can follow 85% of normal speech. Make flash cards of common verbs, nouns, and adjectives and review them on a daily basis. Every time you run across a new word, make a note of it—and then remember to review it until you recognize it on sight/speech. Vocabulary isn’t everything, but it is a huge facet of any language.

4. Follow Through

A day will come, whether one week into learning a language or after several months, when you need a break. No matter how long you need to take off, don’t forget to hit the books again. After taking time off from the language, simply start by reviewing the last couple of activities/chapter/vocabulary words that you worked on. Spend a day or two reviewing to make certain you know it before you move onto more material. Don’t make a habit of taking time off, but remember that it’s ok to take a break every now and then—as long as you remember to put your nose back to the grindstone again.

5. Don’t Stress the Small Stuff

A huge hurdle for many language learners is the need to say and understand everything perfectly. While that’s a good thing, remember, don’t stress out! You’ve just started to learn an entirely new language, something you didn’t grow up hearing spoken in your household or taught at your school. It is natural to mix up words and phrases. Learning a new language isn’t fast or easy, it takes time and work, so don’t be frustrated when you don’t pick up everything on the first try—with the proper guidance, and hard work, you will reach your goal.

Stay tuned to Beyond Words for more advice, audio exercises, and interesting language articles!

                          

While the data from the Modern Language Association (MLA)’s 2006 study, “Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in the United States Institutions of Higher Education” is a few years old, there is still much to be gleaned from the report’s findings. From 2002-2006, the number of foreign language learners, in languages other than Greek and Latin, increased by 175,734 students, or 12.9%. Interestingly enough, during that same time period, college enrollment dropped by 48,000 students, according to the Digest of Education Statistics. So while postsecondary enrollment has increased since 1960, when the MLA began its analysis, in recent years the number of students enrolled in foreign language classes has increased while college enrollment has fluctuated by 50,000 students or so.

But what does this say about enrollment in specific languages—are certain languages like Spanish and Arabic more popular now than before?

In 1960, modern languages other than Spanish (i.e. excluding Latin and Greek) were 58% more popular than Spanish. By 2006, Spanish, however, was 15% more popular than other modern languages. This shift began in the mid-1990s, sometime between 1990 and 1995 and is a decidedly contemporary phenomenon, but it wasn’t until 2006 that the number of Spanish language learners pushed into a strong majority over every other foreign language.

The breakdown of the top five foreign languages learned in 2006 is as follows:

Spanish (822,985 students)
French (206, 426 students)
German (94,264 students)
American Sign Language (78,829 students)
Italian (78,368 students).

The first three, of course, are expected—Spanish, French, and German have always been the top three foreign languages in the United States. Until recently, however, French has always been the most popular, followed by Spanish and then German.

Interestingly, though, while Arabic does not make the top five, it has seen the most drastic growth in numbers of students enrolled. From 2002-2006, the number of students enrolled in Arabic courses has increased from 10,584 students to 23,974 students—a 126.5% jump. Along the same lines, Chinese, number seven on the list, has seen a 51% increase from 2002-2006, with American Sign Language, Italian, and Japanese hovering in the 20-27% growth range. French and German, on the other hand, have only seen a 2.2% and 3.5% increase during the same time period. While the number of students enrolled in French and German is certainly much higher than those enrolled in Chinese or Arabic (the 206,426 students enrolled in French in 2006 versus the 23,974 enrolled in Arabic), if the “less popular” languages continue to increase exponentially as they have from 2002-2006, the modern language game might look a lot different in ten or fifteen years.

As heartening as these statistics are, there is a concrete difference between those who only begin to learn a foreign language and those who pursue advanced study. The ratio of introductory to advanced enrollment in all languages at all universities (including 2-year institutions), for example, is approximately 5:1. For some languages, the disparity is greater, for others not as drastic. Introductory students in Russian, it seems, do pursue advanced study to a greater degree than those studying other languages—the ratio is only 8:3. American Sign Language, on the other hand, has a ratio of 14:1—it seems that most students enroll in only a semester or two of ASL. So how does Arabic, the language with over 100% growth fare? It’s ratio of beginning learners to advanced learners is 8:1—on par with most languages other than Spanish, French, or German, but not exceptionally encouraging if one is looking for proficient English-Arabic speakers. French and German, the second and third most popular languages, hover around a ratio of 4:1, whereas Spanish sits at one of 5:1.

Although one would think that the ratios would be closer when looking at the statistics minus two-year institutions, the ratio of introductory to advanced students is barely lower—7:2 for all languages. In regards to the top three languages, however, the ratios are much closer—3:1 for Spanish, French, and German, and Russian, while 8:3 in institutions including two-year schools, is 7:3 in four-year institutions. Arabic remains only slightly better at a ratio of 7:1.

Overall, it’s easy to see that foreign language learning at postsecondary institutions is on the rise, but it’s hard to pin down the degree to which students are actually learning languages. There’s not data, for example, on the ratios of introductory to advanced foreign language learners in 1960 vs. 1990, so it’s impossible to compare the competency level of foreign language learners now vs. then. What is easier to see is that Spanish has not just overtaken French and German as the most popular language, but also that with a 10.2% increase in enrollment from 2002-2006, it’s far out-pacing French and German with their 2.2% and 3.5% respective increases. And the languages to watch are definitely Arabic and Chinese with their 126.5% and 50% increase in enrollment from 2002-2006. Should we expect those numbers to keep growing, or will some other language become a key player in the higher education scene?

photo by Magdalar

                          

Coined by Jean-Paul Nerriere, a French-speaking retired IBM executive, Globish refers to a non-standard English, a simplified form of English that could be spoken by anyone—Chinese, Indian, American, etc.—with a limited vocabulary of some 1,500 words. McCrum, in turn, argues that Globish, as an extremely viable and viral linguistic tool, is concerned with “the way in which Indians, Chinese and many Africans are now turning to English as a liberating and modernising phenomenon,” and how, as a linguistic force, it “begins to identify the viral nature of this lingua franca, the qualities of the English language and its culture that make it so contagious, adaptable, populist and even subversive.”

While I have nothing to argue with the idea of Globish as a linguistic force in the marketplace—as a way in which businesses can communicate with others in a universal tongue—I wonder how viable Globish is in a non-business setting. In terms of medical, scientific, literary, etc. communication, Globish seems limited. In breaking from the autonomous rule of standard languages, Globish does allow for broader communication. But within that broader communication, nuances are lost. McCrum elevates the idea of cross-cultural connections—“Globish analyses Twitter, Iran’s green revolution and Slumdog Millionaire, and places them all in a new context: a Globish-speaking society”—but one has to wonder what culture will be lost in the translation, or what role literacy plays in the transfer from standard language to the non-standard Globish.

Can Globish address both business and cultural concerns, or is it pigeonholed to economic forces? Be on the look-out for McCrum’s book in May—perhaps it will give us some answers, or at least a few more ideas on economic-cultural linguistics.

                          

This week, the Boston Globe reports on the growing (or, at least, potentially growing) sector of middle-aged male vegans in the article, Men Leave Their Own Mark on Veganism . The piece explores the relationship several middle-aged men have to food and posits that while the idea of veganism is usually associated with twenty- or thirty-somethings (mostly women), there are more vegans that you think. The term vegan was coined by Donald Watson in 1944 as a term to limit the broader term of vegetarian:

Veganism is a way of living which excludes all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, the animal kingdom, and includes a reverence for life. It applies to the practice of living on the products of the plant kingdom to the exclusion of flesh, fish, fowl, eggs, honey, animal milk and its derivatives, and encourages the use of alternatives for all commodities derived wholly or in part from animals.”

According to the OED, a vegan is “one who abstains from all food of animal origin. A strict vegetarian,” but this definition leaves room for expansion. Many vegans abstain not just from food of animal origin—the meat itself, eggs, dairy—but also from honey, wool, and leather. Yes, honey—many vegans consider honey production exploitative, that the bees, who can feel pain and who are live animals, are mistreated through the process. Leather and wool, of course, fall into the same category—exploitation of live animals for human consumption.

So that brings us back to the hegans—what are they, anyway? They are men who “in their 40s and 50s embrace a restrictive lifestyle to look better, rectify a gluttonous past, or cheat death” And, according to the Globe, they’re here to stay.

One hegan, Joe McCain, said he “ate like an American”—everything “fried, fried, or fried,” but, after topping the scale near 300 pounds, he found he was unhappy with his appearance and health. On the advice of a childhood friend (a yoga instructor and vegan), he cut all animal products from his diet, started a yoga routine, and dropped sixty pounds in eight months. Another hegan, Eric Faulkner, said he switched because he was “scared to death of cancer.” He cooks for his family on a regular basis and has converted both his wife and daughter.

This mantra that “real men eat plants” is compelling—but how close to the truth is it? Are that many men switching to a plant-based diet? On the celebrity side of life, there are a few hegans out there, although the number of women vegans still outnumbers men. Recently Reuben Studdard, the American Idol judge and recording artist in his own right, lost over one hundred pounds on a vegan diet. Minnesota Twins baseball player Pat Neshek went vegan after breaking down with fatigue the end of his first season (2007). After switching diets, he saw his cholesterol drop and his energy and increase. Even Dennis Kucinich (Democratic Representative of Ohio) is a vegan—citing both ethical and health-related reasons.

The bottom line is that there are male vegans out there and that some, like Joe McCain or Eric Faulkner, are openly embracing it. Others don’t feel the need to associate with the labeling of veganism, declaring that it’s too restrictive and militant (think PETA). And there are no concrete numbers of vegans—male or female—available. One 2008 statistics lists 0.5% of people in the United States as vegan and 3% as vegetarian—definitely not the majority or even a strong minority, but a subculture in its own right.

For now there are hegans and everyone else. Will the term catch on? It’s up for debate, but some, especially business owners hope so—after all, isn’t every new fad a good thing for the books?

- photo by Daaartavee

                          

新年快乐, xīn nián kuài lè, 過年好, guò nián hǎo, or Happy New Year!

Yesterday marked the first day of the Lunar New Year and all around the world people celebrated by feasting, wishing each other peace and prosperity for the year to come, and by setting off firecrackers. As the longest and most important holiday during the Chinese Lunar year, Chinese New Year is celebrated in areas with significant Han Chinese populations (the dominant people group in China, representing 92% of the country’s population) including (but not limited to) Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore, Taiwan, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. While not an official holiday in Australia, Canada, the United States, and elsewhere, significant celebrations occur in the countries’ various Chinatowns and in homes everywhere.

The date of the New Year differs from year to year and is determined by the lunisolar Chinese calendar (the calendar indicates both the lunar phases and the time of the solar year). According to the Gregorian calendar, the new year falls on a date between January 21 and February 20; according to the lunisolar calendar, it occurs during the eleventh month, generally on the second new moon after winter solstice. Each year is marked by an animal of the zodiac—rat (鼠), ox (牛), tiger (虎), rabbit (兔), dragon (龍), snake (蛇), horse (馬), sheep (羊), monkey (猴), rooster (雞), dog (狗), and pig (豬)—along with a ten year cycle of the heavenly stems—the five elements of Chinese astrology: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. The five stems are alternated yin and yang (yang wood, yin water, yang metal, etc.). This year, 2010, for example, is the yang metal tiger, and it happened to fall on February 14, Valentine’s Day.

Chinese New Year Traditions:

Some of the traditions associated with the New Year holiday include a thorough cleaning of one’s house. The act of sweeping away dust and dirt is believed to sweep away the bad luck of the previous year and readies the home for good luck. Once the broom and dust pan is put away, good luck cannot be swept away. The color red is also associated with the New Year, and many cut out paper symbols of luck and prosperity and decorate their homes with them.

Food, of course, plays a large role in the celebrations, and some common dishes include some form of fish (the pronunciation of fish, 魚 or yú is a homophone for surplus 餘 or yú), Jau gok (油角, yóu jiăo), Jin ju or mandarin oranges (金橘, jīn jú), noodles (which represent longevity), and a Nian gao (年糕) which is the Chinese New Year Pudding and whose pronunciation is a homophone for “a more prosperous year” (年高). The half-moon shaped Jau gok is the main Chinese New Year dumpling and is one of the more well known dishes served. Originally found in Cantonese cuisine and originating in the Guangdong Province in China, the fried dumplings are made of a glutinous rice dough and filled with variations of pork, Chinese sausage, and black mushrooms. A sweet coconut version called 甜角仔 is also made and consists of dried coconut and sugar.

Another important tradition is the exchange of red paper packets or envelopes commonly filled with money. Known as lai sze or 利是 in Cantonese, ‘hóng bāo’ or 红包 in Mandarin Chinese, the red envelopes are 壓歲錢or Ya Sui Qian, literally translated as “the money used to suppress or put down the evil spirit.” In Western countries, dollar amounts of $8 are common because eight is considered a lucky number (its homophone is wealth). In other countries, the amount varies, but only even-numbered dollar amounts are considered proper, but odd numbered amounts are associated with funeral cash gifts, and the envelopes are given by married couples to unmarried friends and family members.

Other traditions and elements include the setting off of firecrackers at nighttime to drive evil spirits away, the lighting of red, oval lanterns, and dancing the dragon dance or lion dance. The dances along with their accompanying drum beats and cymbal clashes are believed, like firecrackers, to ward off bad or evil spirits. Gathering with one’s extended family and practicing 守岁 or Shou Sui (reminiscing about the past year and predicting the year to come) the night after the reunion dinner on Chinese New Year is another common event.

Although the first celebration day of the New Year was yesterday, the holiday extends up to fifteen days and includes traditions such as visiting relative members in other areas, eating more dumplings (Jiǎozi or 餃子) on the morning of Po Wu (破五), and celebrating yuán xiāo jié (元宵节) which is the fifteenth day of the New Year and features tangyuan (汤) dumplings, a sweet, glutinous rice ball dumpling eaten in soup. On this last day of the New Year celebrations, candles are lit outside of homes to guide wayward spirits home.

So, Happy New Year and may you find peace and prosperity in the year to come!

Photo by Twonggg